Another interesting finding of our study is that with

Another interesting finding of our study is that with the increasing N170 amplitude for characters, the amplitude of faces decreased at the same time especially in the left hemisphere after visual learning Chinese characters. Li et al.’s study finds that young children\'s reading ability has a negative effect on N170 right lateralization for faces (S. Li et al., 2013). The current results provides further and direct evidence to support the indole-3-carbinol hypothesis of the development of visual word expertise (Dehaene and Cohen, 2007), which proposes that there is competition between culturally or environmentally shaped visual processing and perhaps the more hard-wired visual processes like face perception that may be more shaped by evolution. Explicitly teaching children to read may induce children to devote more neural resources to process words at the expense of the neural resources for face processing (S. Li et al., 2013). More importantly, devoting more neural resources to the development of word processing does not necessitate competition with neural development in other domains. As we found in the current study, the object (tools) N170 amplitude did not change significantly after training. Our study is the first to find that the word-related N170 expertise emerges very quickly in young Chinese children (4 to 5 years old) after only short-term word learning. Visual and writing learning have different effects on visual word N170 expertise processing. These results suggest that different experiences with the same stimuli (Chinese characters) can exert different effects on a child\'s developing brain. However, due to the limitation of our sample size in the present study, the underling mechanism of experience-brain interactions during development still needs to be investigated. The experience-brain interactions during development are very complex. Child behavior and cognition emerge from dynamic neural connectivity in developing brains. Actually, in developing brains, there are two modes of networks: structural networks and functional networks. Each mode shapes and constrains the other across multiple timescales and each shows age-related changes as well (Byrge et al., 2014). The intrinsic brain dynamics, extended brain-behavior networks and developmental process construct a very complex dynamic system. Visual word expertise processing, as one of the important aspects of brain specialization correlated with multiple experience (reading and writing), emerges and develops from such a dynamic system. For example, visual and motor experience integration across sensory and motor systems can contribute to functional visual word specialization (James and Atwood, 2008). Thus, future studies need to explore the changes of brain connectivity under different types of literacy experience, and in children with different ages. Evidence from these studies, we hope, will eventually answer the question of why different environmental inputs results in different effects on children\'s brain activity and their behavior.
Introduction Based on its cytology, imaging characteristics and connections, the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is thought to play a crucial role in the development of human cognitive function and guiding human behaviors (Rushworth et al., 2007). It has been associated with cognitive control functions including attention modulation, competition monitoring, complex motor control, motivation, novelty, error detection, working memory, anticipation of cognitively demanding tasks, and the modulation of reward-based decision making (for review, see Shenhav et al., 2013). Functional abnormalities associated with the dACC have been consistently reported in ADHD (Bush et al., 1999; Cao et al., 2009; Castellanos et al., 2008; Durston, 2003; Rubia et al., 1999; Tamm et al., 2004; Tian et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2011; Zang et al., 2007), which is considered as a neurodevelopmental disorder (Bush et al., 2005; Castellanos et al., 2002).